By Dr. Michael Witzel*
Already the earliest written evidence from the Nepålama ala, i.e.
the inscriptions of the Lichavi kings, show the co-existence of the
various sects and forms of both Buddhism and Hinduism. Both forms
of Aryan belief were followed by the populace and honoured by the
kings.1 Vedic traditions, too, occasionally are mentioned along with
Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The Vedic religion, which
preceded both Buddhism and medieval Hinduism, had already in
Lichavi time largely been superseded by Pauranic and Tantric elements,
yet this oldest form of Aryan worship and learning has come down to
the present age and was prominently displayed in some of the rites
performed at the coronation ceremony of H.M. the King. It is this
tradition which will be traced through Nepalese history in the following
pages.
As it is well known, the oldest Veda text, the gveda, was
composed in the land of the seven streams (East Afghanistan, North
Pakistan, N. W. India), i. e. in the country reaching from the rivers of
Kabul and Indus up to the Beas and Sarasvatī (Ghaggar). It is only a
younger gvedic stanza that mentions the Ga gå for the first time. In
the later Vedic period, however, the Aryans conquered the Gangetic
plains, and by the time of redaction of the Śatapathabråhma a, even
Brahmins deemed the marshy country of Videha (North Bihar, Terai)
suitable for settlement.2
From the same period apparently date the earliest strata of the
Kapilavastu excavations (red ochre, Northern black polished wares),
and the kingdom of the famous Janaka of Videha3 actually will have
included some parts of the Nepalese Terai, too. These then would be the
1 See Dhanabajra Bajracharya. Pūr imå 14, p. 106-116 and in his extremely
knowledgeable book "Lichavi kåla kå abhilekh", Kathmandu VS 2030, passim.
2 In the legend of the settlement of King Videgha Måthava in Videha, by following
the god Agni who had been burning in front of his march from the Panjab
(Śatapatha Bråhma a 1,4,1, 10-18)
3 Prominently figuring in the Śatapatha Bråhma a and B had Āra yaka Upani ad.
earliest literary references and material remains of Vedic culture in
Nepal.4 Yet the evidence from other late Vedic texts is not equally
favourable for the hilly tracts of the Kingdom; The law book of Manu5
speaks of the
* Dr. Witzel is currently associated with the Nepal-German Manuscript
Preservation Project, Department of Archaeology, HMG.
VASUDHA (Kathmandu) Vol. XV No. 12, October-November 1976, 17-24, 35-39 17
[Printing mistakes have been corrected, endnotes set as footnotes, and diacritical mark are added for
convenience sake].
4 Some more material, especially from early Buddhist sources and from Lichavi
inscriptions, has been published by Nayaraj Panta, Pūr imå 2, p. 1 sqq.
5 Manu X 22 and 44, also mentioning the Malla, Nichavi (Lichavi).
unorthodox nature of the Khaśa tribe -- at that time6 probably due to
the only partial reception of the strict Brahmanical rites and
regulations by this tribe, which until medieval times occupied the
Himalayan belt between Kashmir and Jumla7 and seems to have been
the ancestor, of the modern Khas people. In this context, it might be
recalled that even nowadays the Garhwalis and the Matwali Chetris of
West Nepal do not in all respects adhere strictly to the Brahmanical
norms, although there is a growing trend to introduce more and more
of that tradition.8 As for the Nepal Valley, early literary sources
(Atharvavedapariśi a, Kau ilya's Arthaśåstra)9 barely mention more
than its name and therefore are of no consequence in this context. The
earliest detailed references to the religious situation in the Kathmandu
Valley therefore are the Lichavi inscriptions.
the inscriptions of the Lichavi kings, show the co-existence of the
various sects and forms of both Buddhism and Hinduism. Both forms
of Aryan belief were followed by the populace and honoured by the
kings.1 Vedic traditions, too, occasionally are mentioned along with
Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The Vedic religion, which
preceded both Buddhism and medieval Hinduism, had already in
Lichavi time largely been superseded by Pauranic and Tantric elements,
yet this oldest form of Aryan worship and learning has come down to
the present age and was prominently displayed in some of the rites
performed at the coronation ceremony of H.M. the King. It is this
tradition which will be traced through Nepalese history in the following
pages.
As it is well known, the oldest Veda text, the gveda, was
composed in the land of the seven streams (East Afghanistan, North
Pakistan, N. W. India), i. e. in the country reaching from the rivers of
Kabul and Indus up to the Beas and Sarasvatī (Ghaggar). It is only a
younger gvedic stanza that mentions the Ga gå for the first time. In
the later Vedic period, however, the Aryans conquered the Gangetic
plains, and by the time of redaction of the Śatapathabråhma a, even
Brahmins deemed the marshy country of Videha (North Bihar, Terai)
suitable for settlement.2
From the same period apparently date the earliest strata of the
Kapilavastu excavations (red ochre, Northern black polished wares),
and the kingdom of the famous Janaka of Videha3 actually will have
included some parts of the Nepalese Terai, too. These then would be the
1 See Dhanabajra Bajracharya. Pūr imå 14, p. 106-116 and in his extremely
knowledgeable book "Lichavi kåla kå abhilekh", Kathmandu VS 2030, passim.
2 In the legend of the settlement of King Videgha Måthava in Videha, by following
the god Agni who had been burning in front of his march from the Panjab
(Śatapatha Bråhma a 1,4,1, 10-18)
3 Prominently figuring in the Śatapatha Bråhma a and B had Āra yaka Upani ad.
earliest literary references and material remains of Vedic culture in
Nepal.4 Yet the evidence from other late Vedic texts is not equally
favourable for the hilly tracts of the Kingdom; The law book of Manu5
speaks of the
* Dr. Witzel is currently associated with the Nepal-German Manuscript
Preservation Project, Department of Archaeology, HMG.
VASUDHA (Kathmandu) Vol. XV No. 12, October-November 1976, 17-24, 35-39 17
[Printing mistakes have been corrected, endnotes set as footnotes, and diacritical mark are added for
convenience sake].
4 Some more material, especially from early Buddhist sources and from Lichavi
inscriptions, has been published by Nayaraj Panta, Pūr imå 2, p. 1 sqq.
5 Manu X 22 and 44, also mentioning the Malla, Nichavi (Lichavi).
unorthodox nature of the Khaśa tribe -- at that time6 probably due to
the only partial reception of the strict Brahmanical rites and
regulations by this tribe, which until medieval times occupied the
Himalayan belt between Kashmir and Jumla7 and seems to have been
the ancestor, of the modern Khas people. In this context, it might be
recalled that even nowadays the Garhwalis and the Matwali Chetris of
West Nepal do not in all respects adhere strictly to the Brahmanical
norms, although there is a growing trend to introduce more and more
of that tradition.8 As for the Nepal Valley, early literary sources
(Atharvavedapariśi a, Kau ilya's Arthaśåstra)9 barely mention more
than its name and therefore are of no consequence in this context. The
earliest detailed references to the religious situation in the Kathmandu
Valley therefore are the Lichavi inscriptions.
Lichavi Period
Already10 one of the oldest inscriptions, the famous Changu
Narayan inscription of Månadeva (Samvat 386 = 464 AD)11 mentions
Brahmins (vipra, dvija) as recipients of gifts, and other early Lichavi
inscriptions even speak of Brahmins as the leaders of Villages
(Thankot, Balambu, etc.). This would vouch for a considerable number
6 Ca. the second century BC to the second century AD; the commonly accepted date
for the redaction of the Manusm ti (see Bühler, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXV).
7 See Stein, transl. of the Råjatara
gi ī (I 317) p. 47 and cf. index, Vol. II, p. 519: the
valleys in the South and East of the Pīr Pantsål Range (forming the southern rim of
the Kashmir Valley): cf. Grierson, Ling. Survey of India, Vol. IX Pt. IV p. 2-8, with
many references to Sanskrit literature.
8 See for instance, G. D. Berreman, Hindus of the Himalayas, Oxford/Bombay 1963
p. 399 sqq. 143 sqq.
9 Atharvavedapariśi a 56, 1, 10 (along with Kåmarūpa = Assam): Kau ilya 2.11,100
(cloth from Nepal). Other literary sources (Mahåbhårata, Råmåya a) etc. are of too
uncertain date. Patañjali's Mahåbhå ya (ca. 150 BC) unfortunately does not contain
a reference.
10 Some of the following data are also published by N. R. Panta, Pūr imå 2, p. 1 sq.
11 for the dates, see Dh. B. Bajracharya. Lich. Kåla kå Abh. p. 18; cf. also Śa kar Mån
Råjba si, Lichavi Sambat ko ni kar a, Kathmandu VS 2030.
of them, settled in the Nepal Valley at that time.12 It is, however,
conceivable that they came to the Valley together with the Lichavis,
were attached to the royal court as priests, and also functioned as
purohitas of k atriya families. This development would be analogous to
the introduction of Hinduism in other parts of the subcontinent, as
well as in South-East Asia,13 where the Brahmins always have been
attached to the court as royal priests until today: They hold this
position at the court of Thailand, and did so until recently in
Cambodia. Court brahmins always were required even in these
Buddhist countries to perform rituals like the coronation etc.
Therefore, it should not be surprising that in Nepal, too, the
earliest record of a Vedic ceremony presupposes them in exactly this
function: The Ha igaon inscription14 of A śuvarman contains a
description of a coronation ceremony with a detailed account of the
money spent on this occasion for various purposes (Samvat 30 = 606
AD). This inscription is also important as one of the earliest nonliterary
and detailed descriptions of the persons taking part in this
ceremony, and thus helps to bridge the gap between the elaborate Vedic
of the Råjasūya sacrifice and the råjyåbhi eka descriptions in the Epics,
in dramas and medieval handbooks. It seems quite clear that, already
at this comparatively early period, Pauranik elements had been added
to the old Vedic coronation ceremony, which had been superseded
because of its unpracticability (see below).15
The actual study of Vedic texts during the Lichavi period is
attested indirectly by the mentioning of the Śruti next to Dharmaśåstra
in Månadeva's inscription at Kel Tole and by the frequently occurring
kara apūjå which is performed to honour Vaiśampåyana, the
12 See also Hsuen Tsang's description, reprinted in Regmi, Ancient Nepal, Calcutta
1960, p. 134: "The number of Brahmins cannot be said exactly" ... "Buddhist
monasteries and Hindu temples touch each other".
13 See : G. Coedes, The Indianised States of South East Asia, Kuala
Lumpur/Singapore 1968, p. 21 sqq.; H. G. Quaritch-Wales, Siamese States
Ceremonies, London 1931, p. 54 sqq., H. Bechert. Buddhismus, Staat und Gesellschaft
in den Ländern des Theravada-Buddhismus. Berlin/Frankfurt, Vol. lI p. 242 sqq.,
and passim.
14 Dh.B. Bajracharya, op. cit. No 72; Gnoli, No. 75.
15 The ritual lasted for more than a year and required strict observances like fasting,
sleeping on the ground, etc. for the yajamåna, i. e. the king.
(supposed) author or redactor of the Yajurveda (e. g. Vasantadeva's
Khapuche inscription of S. 452 = 531 AD).16 The same inscription also
contains the names of the Brahmins Viprasena, Veda Bha a,
Dhruvasena, and V
dhisena, and attaches the title of yåjñika
(performer of Vedic rituals) to the first two persons. The trayī (the
three holy Vedas) and the Veda in general are
18 VASUDHA
16 Dh.B. Bajracharya, No. 28, with his note (cf. also note p. 63 on karan a pūjå).
also mentioned in the Satyanarayan inscription17 of Ha igaon (of ca. S.
462 = 540 AD), where the names of the post-Vedic dharmaśåstras of
Manu, Yama, B
haspati and Uśanas also occur.
The most important piece of evidence, however, will be the
mentioning of a Taittirī-śåkhå go hī in the Narayanchowk (perhaps ca.
850 AD).18 A Gu hi for the Taittirīya branch of the K a Yajurveda
comes as quite a surprise in a Nepalese context, because all other
known medieval sources only name the Śukla Yajurveda.19 The
occurrence of this Śåkhå which all through the middle ages has been
popular and wide-spread only in South India (where, according to a
proverb "even the house cats know the Yajurveda"), could point to a
survival in the extreme North of the sub-continent of this old Vedic
school: It had originated from the doåb of the Yamunå and Ga gå in the
middle of the Vedic period, and was then transplanted to the countries
South of the Vindhyas, while all areas North of them were 'overrun' by
the Mådhyandinīya Śåkhå of the Śukla Yajurveda, which superseded the
other old Krsna Yajurveda schools there: the Kathas nowadays remain
only in Kashmir Valley and the Maitraya īyas very feebly in some areas
of Gujarat and North Maharastra.
The said inscription, therefore, is quite important for a general
history of Vedic schools and Vedic traditions and could help to explain
some peculiarities of Malla time Veda manuscripts, mentioned below.
"Thakuri" and Early Malla Period
After the comparatively many documents available from the
Lichavi period, there is a long gap in our knowledge regarding the
actual conditions in the Valley. A few inscriptions and some colophons
of very old palm leaf manuscripts shed some light on this period, but
17 Dh.B. Bajracharya No. 35, Gnoli No. 1; see Dh.B. Bajracharya's commentary on
it, p. 162 sqq.
18 See Pūr imå 16 p. 360-64, Bajracharya No. 149 = Gnoli No. 83, at Naxal, no date;
acc. to Bajracharya from the time of Jayadeva II, i. e. ca. 850 AD: cf. the note on p. 140.
19 In its sub-branch of the Mådhyandinīya recension, except for the one Kå va
manuscript mentioned below. Possibly, the Taitt. Go hī was singled out in the
inscription, because even at that time, Våjasaneyins were the core of the Brahmanical
population in the Valley. This, however, cannot be proved because of lack of
evidence.
little published so far help reconstruct the religious history of the time.
It is, however, clear that Brahmins and that means, the bearers of Vedic
traditions, continued to live in the Valley and that they frequently
remained purohitas of the kings.20 Thus, king Gu akåmadeva (955-995
AD. acc. to D. R. Regmi) ordered a Ko ihoma ceremony21 to be carried
out, which, of course, had to be performed by his Brahmin priests
according to (mostly) Vedic ritual. The coronation ceremony2 2
(pu yåbhi eka) is first mentioned for King Rudradeva (N. Samvat 237 =
1117 AD.) in the so-called Kaiser Va avalī,23 and from then onward
quite frequently both in this and in the well-known Gopålava śåvalī.
For king Abhayamalla's reign, it also mentions the performance of
such Vedic rituals as the Lak ahoma and the Påkaśråddha (1216-1255
AD).
From this same period date the oldest preserved Vedic
manuscripts of the whole sub-continent, now kept at the National
Archives of Nepal. They substantiate the account of the inscriptions
and of the occasional occurrence of Brahmins' names in the colophons
of non-Vedic mss.: There is an Upåkarmavidhi dated NS 180 = 1060 AD
(Ms. No. 1-1473 ca), which contains regulations for some ceremonies
connected with learning the Veda by rote. A Vivåhakarmasamuccaya of
NS 233 = 1113 AD contains rules for the marriage ceremony (Ms. I 933
kha); a Daśakarmapaddhati of NS 296 = 1176 AD those for the ten
'sacraments' to be performed during a person's life (Ms. I 1536); a
Sandhyavidhi of NS 401 = 1281 AD those for the Vedic twilight rites
(Ms. I 1320 nga). A study of these manuscripts,
VASUDHA 19
20 Whatever their religious outlook had been. A manuscript colophon of AD 1184,
for instance, mentions a śaivaråjaguru (see Regmi, Medieval Nepal, I, p. 192)
21 See Gopålava śåvalī fol. 23a.
22 On this ceremony, see now: Mahesh Raj Pant, Pūr imå 33, p. 13-27 (English
translation to appear in Nepal Research Center Journal. No. I).
23 See M. R. Pant, loc. cit. p. 16.
(as well as of the rest of the 24.000 or so mss. of the National Archives),
which have been stored there and partly even described since nearly 70
years now, but which have hardly been studied, (not to speak of
editions and translations), would shed considerable light on the
customs and the society of the period under review here.
Although the times do not seem to have been easy ones, the old
Brahmanical population seems to have continued to reside in the
Valley. Thus a manuscript of the Śivadharmaśåstra (Asiatic Soc. of
Bengal, No. 4077) mentions a certain Ratnasi ha as living in the
Taittiriyasala at Kathmandu, NS. 156 = 1036 AD. This śålå could well
have belonged to the Taittirīśåkhå Gu hi mentioned above. Yet there
also is some evidence for a continued immigration of Brahmins from
other parts of the sub-continent: A Brahmin immigrant from Gujarat24
is attested for NS 316 = 1216 AD. We do not know of the Vedic school
of this pandit, if he was a śrotriya at all. Coming from Gujarat,
however, he should have belonged to the Maitraya īya school of the
K a Yajurveda.
Except for the occurrence of the name of the Taittirīyas, there has
been no clear evidence so far regarding the śåkhå(s) to which the
Nepalese Brahmins of the time belonged. There is, however, an old
Kå våyana Śråddhavidhi (Nat. Arch. I 1320 gha).
This ritual handbook belongs to the rare Kå va school of the
Śukla Yajurveda, otherwise found scattered only here and there in India
(Nagpur, Orissa, Tamilnadu). Again, during the last part of the period
described here, there was a considerable influx from Mithila, mostly
caused by the Muslim conquest of Tirhut in 1324 AD. The Brahmins
fleeing to Nepal brought with them such mss. as the Pårva aśråddha25
(Laksma a Samvat 171 = ca. 1290 AD), or the Våjasaneyinåm
Vivåhapaddhati26 (La. S. 414 = ca. 1533 AD), the very title of which
shows that this text belongs to the Våjasaneyi Śåkhå of the Śukla
Yajurveda. Both mss. are in Maithili script. A glimpse of the state of
affairs in West Nepal is given by the Khasa king Jitårimalla's
24 Regmi, op. cit. p. 640.
25 Ms. No. I 772 nga in Bengali character.
26 Ms. No. I 1634 nga in Maithili script.
inscription said to be of the Śaka years 1015, 1016, 1018, assigning
some birta land to Brahmins.27
The later Malla Period
The data for a historical account of the Vedic traditions in Nepal
considerably increase with the advent of the Maithila Brahmins
referred to above: The Vedic manuscripts from the 14th and 15th
century are quite important as they differ somewhat in nature from the
earliest ones described in the last paragraph. There is a Puru asūkta
ms.28 of NS 444 = 1324 AD, and there are other Sa hitå mss., too: A
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå29 of Śaka 1350 = 1428 AD, another one of 1429 AD,
both of which were copied at Bhaktapur in Newari script. More
important yet is a Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå Padapå ha and Kramapå ha ms.,
also in Newari script, of the Śaka year 1324 = 1402 AD. and another
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå ms. in Devanagari script (no date) belonging of A.
Sharma. These two mss., which possibly are the oldest ones of this
Sa hitå extant anywhere, are of special importance30 because of the
way they mark the Vedic accents (svara): it seems that in Nepal of the
15th century, the old way of Veda recitation as described by the great
grammarian På ini (ca. 500 BC.) was still extant, while it had died out
in this form
20 VASUDHA
27 See Regmi, op. cit. Vol. I p. 723.
28 Ms. No. I 1206 gha.
29 Mss. nos. I 736 ca and I 784 gha.
30 See: author, Vishvabandu Commemoration Volume, p. 483-501 Hoshiarpur 1974.
in most parts of India: Some survivals can be deduced for the time only
in Kashmir, and some areas of Gujarat/North Maharashtra. Today,
this type of recitation survives only with some families in Kerala.
It would, therefore, seem that the older way of Vedic recitation,
which dates back even to Indo-European times (i. e. pronouncing the
udåtta, and not the svarita as the syllable with the highest tone),
persisted only in the very corners of sub-continent, and the said
Nepalese mss. are the oldest testimony of it in a written form. There are
a few later Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå mss. exhibiting these features, and there
also is a gveda ms.31 of perhaps equal age as that of A. Sharma
referred to above.
The medieval Vedic transmission and the actual recital of the
texts therefore seems to have been very conservative and faithful in
Nepal.
On the other hand, there was a considerable influence of the
North Indian traditions, coming with the Maithili Brahmins referred to
above. It is them who are said to have assisted king Jayasthiti Malla in
''introducing" the caste system into the Valley: Kīrtinåtha Upådhyåya
Kånyakubja, Raghunåtha Jhå Maithilī, Śrīnatha Bha a, Mahīnåtha
Bha a, Råmanåtha Bha a, -- typical names from the plains. King
Jyotirmalla, too, in NS. 530 = 1410 AD settled some Brahmin families
from Bengal at Patan, the descendants of whom still appear with their
Bengali names (Bha åcårya, Cakravartī, Ray, Ojhå) in an inscription of
1675 AD.32
Notices above Vedic rituals as performed during the Malla period
are quite numerous. First of all, there are the coronation ceremonies
(pu yåbhi eka, pa åbhi eka). They were sometimes accompanied by the
very elaborate and costly Ko ihoma sacrifice:33 King Siddhinarasi ha
Malla of Patan in NS 757 = 1637 AD performed a Ko yåhuti "of
Råjasūya style"34 which would mean a coronation ceremony much more
elaborate than the medieval pu yåbhi eka or råjyåbhi eka. A Ko yåhuti
was also performed by king Uchravasi ha Malla in NS 689 = 1569 AD
by king Śrīnivåsa Malla in NS 793 = 1673 AD, by Queen ddhilak mī of
31 Ms. I 1372, still written with p hamåtrå signs.
32 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. IV no. 77 = Abhilekha Sa
graha no. II, p. II.
33 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 726 sq.
34 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 273.
Kathmandu in NS 814 = 1694 AD and king Ra ajita Malla of
Bhaktapur (reigned 1722-69 AD). These Ko yåhutis are of special
importance here, as they always have to be accompanied by
Vedapåråya a, the recitation of all the four Vedas. The ritual, too,
includes quite a number of Vedic rites, but has also been supplemented
Pauranik and Tantrik elements.
Other Vedic rites attested include such yajñas as that one
described in the Taumadi Tole inscription35 of Bhaktapur, NS 530 =
1410 AD, or the Vyåghra Bhairava consecration accompanied by Vedic
recitation in NS 663 = 1515 AD. As Patan is one of the oldest capitals of
the Valley, the court Brahmins there have been performing an
Agnihotra ritual down through the centuries. This is one of the
simplest, but also the oldest Vedic rites, originally meant to insure the
rising of the sun every morning. It is therefore performed everyday
before (or at) sunrise and also at sunset, as a means to secure the
proper keeping of the holy fires overnight The Kaiser Library has got a
manuscript of NS 533 = 1434 AD describing this and some other Vedic
rituals like agnyådhåna, pave i, dårsapaur amåse i, anvårambha e i,
kåme i, śunasīre i, mitravinde i. This is one of the few Nepalese hand-
VASUDHA 21
35 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. III, inscription No. XLV.
books of the complicated Vedic Śrauta rituals surviving from the
middle ages. Otherwise, such Śrauta handbooks are hardly to be found
in the valley, and if so, they had been imported from Banaras in the last
centuries. (Handbooks of the more common house rituals --G hya
ceremonies,-- however, are quite numerous). Nevertheless, Vedic
Śrauta rites have come down even to the present time, though on a
limited scale (see below).
Special mention should be made of the Bhaktapur King
Bhūpatīndra Malla (1696-1722 AD), who ascended the throne at the
early age of 21. He seems to have been an extraordinary man in many
respects: He was not only a poet, instigated great activity in repairing
old temples and the palace, and built many new ones like the famous
Nyatapola and the Malatichok, but he also performed many rituals,36
as can be seen from the accounts preserved in the National Archives,
and he had innumerable manuscripts copied.37 One list of his library
alone comprises hundreds of books. Among them there is a very
interesting ms. of the first book of the Atharvaveda38 (Padapå ha of the
Śaunaka recension, NS 812 = AD 1692), written a few years before his
ascension to the throne, on his order. This is not only one of the very
few Atharvaveda mss. from Malla times but it also employs a very
unusual way of marking the Vedic accents, unknown from any other
Veda ms. either from Nepal or India. Another Atharvaveda ms. from
his time,39 however, has got the usual accent marks. In his reign a few
gveda mss. also were copied and are in the National Archives now.
Although there is dearth of mss. of the Bråhma a and the
Upani ad of the Våjasaneyi school in Malla time Nepal, a few copies of
these texts (i. e. Śatapatha Bråhma a and B hadaåra yaka Upani ad)
have come down from Bhūpatīndra's time. There are numerous
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå mss., as in the centuries before, but a few of them
have got quite a curious numbering of mantras -- a fact perhaps
pointing to Kå va Śåkhå origin. In this regard, the occasional
immigration from various parts of India should not be left out of
36 Cf. Pūr imå No. 9, p. 23-29.
37 Cf. Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 243.
38 Ms. No. I 801.
39 Ms. No. I 711.
consideration. There is the case of Bha a Nåråya a,40 a Brahmin from
the Co
a country, already attested in NS 591 = 1471 AD and of another
Brahmin Nåråya a,41 the spiritual advisor of King Śivasi ha of
Kathmandu (1578-1620 AD). This Brahmin had come from the banks
of the river Kåverī in Tamilnadu. Again, another Brahmin from South
India, whose home was somewhere on the Godåvarī river, was minister
of the Patan King in the late 17th century.42 Furthermore, the Paśupati
Temple priests since centuries have been coming from the North
Karnataka town of Gokarna. All these Brahmins might have brought
with them traditions and manuscripts unusual to the tradition of the
Valley.43
One fact which strikes any observer of medieval Veda tradition of
Nepal very much is the seemingly absolute non-occurrence of Såmaveda
manuscripts.44 Såmavedic singing was necessary for such elaborate
Śrauta rituals as the Soma (Agni oma) rites, and Såmaveda Brahmins
also have to take part even in the modern form of the coronation ritual,
or in any Lak ahoma. The absence of Såmaveda evidence is striking even
more as Mithila had a firm tradition of Såmaveda in be middle ages,
and as even in the Valley itself, a few late G hya manuals in Newari
script45 are preserved, which claim to belong to the Såmaveda. All of
them, however, had been written only in this or in the last century.
22 VASUDHA
40 D.R. Regmi. op. cit. Vol. III inscription No. 72.
41 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. IV inscription No. 30
42 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. I p. 685.
43 There are a number of old palm leaf manuscripts in South Indian scripts in the
National Archives, going uncatalogued.
44 I have now found one in the list of king Bhūpatīndra Malla, referred to above.
45 Ms. No. I 1696/568, apparently confiscated in Rana time from a Bhaktapur
Rajopadhyaya.
Nevertheless, the absence of Såmaveda texts is echoed by the modern
scarcity of Såmaveda singers in the Valley (see below). It must not be
forgotten that Såmavedic singing is a very intricate art, requiring years
of study and training--and if there was no real need for such skill, it
easily could fall into disuse and neglect.
Narayan inscription of Månadeva (Samvat 386 = 464 AD)11 mentions
Brahmins (vipra, dvija) as recipients of gifts, and other early Lichavi
inscriptions even speak of Brahmins as the leaders of Villages
(Thankot, Balambu, etc.). This would vouch for a considerable number
6 Ca. the second century BC to the second century AD; the commonly accepted date
for the redaction of the Manusm ti (see Bühler, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXV).
7 See Stein, transl. of the Råjatara
gi ī (I 317) p. 47 and cf. index, Vol. II, p. 519: the
valleys in the South and East of the Pīr Pantsål Range (forming the southern rim of
the Kashmir Valley): cf. Grierson, Ling. Survey of India, Vol. IX Pt. IV p. 2-8, with
many references to Sanskrit literature.
8 See for instance, G. D. Berreman, Hindus of the Himalayas, Oxford/Bombay 1963
p. 399 sqq. 143 sqq.
9 Atharvavedapariśi a 56, 1, 10 (along with Kåmarūpa = Assam): Kau ilya 2.11,100
(cloth from Nepal). Other literary sources (Mahåbhårata, Råmåya a) etc. are of too
uncertain date. Patañjali's Mahåbhå ya (ca. 150 BC) unfortunately does not contain
a reference.
10 Some of the following data are also published by N. R. Panta, Pūr imå 2, p. 1 sq.
11 for the dates, see Dh. B. Bajracharya. Lich. Kåla kå Abh. p. 18; cf. also Śa kar Mån
Råjba si, Lichavi Sambat ko ni kar a, Kathmandu VS 2030.
of them, settled in the Nepal Valley at that time.12 It is, however,
conceivable that they came to the Valley together with the Lichavis,
were attached to the royal court as priests, and also functioned as
purohitas of k atriya families. This development would be analogous to
the introduction of Hinduism in other parts of the subcontinent, as
well as in South-East Asia,13 where the Brahmins always have been
attached to the court as royal priests until today: They hold this
position at the court of Thailand, and did so until recently in
Cambodia. Court brahmins always were required even in these
Buddhist countries to perform rituals like the coronation etc.
Therefore, it should not be surprising that in Nepal, too, the
earliest record of a Vedic ceremony presupposes them in exactly this
function: The Ha igaon inscription14 of A śuvarman contains a
description of a coronation ceremony with a detailed account of the
money spent on this occasion for various purposes (Samvat 30 = 606
AD). This inscription is also important as one of the earliest nonliterary
and detailed descriptions of the persons taking part in this
ceremony, and thus helps to bridge the gap between the elaborate Vedic
of the Råjasūya sacrifice and the råjyåbhi eka descriptions in the Epics,
in dramas and medieval handbooks. It seems quite clear that, already
at this comparatively early period, Pauranik elements had been added
to the old Vedic coronation ceremony, which had been superseded
because of its unpracticability (see below).15
The actual study of Vedic texts during the Lichavi period is
attested indirectly by the mentioning of the Śruti next to Dharmaśåstra
in Månadeva's inscription at Kel Tole and by the frequently occurring
kara apūjå which is performed to honour Vaiśampåyana, the
12 See also Hsuen Tsang's description, reprinted in Regmi, Ancient Nepal, Calcutta
1960, p. 134: "The number of Brahmins cannot be said exactly" ... "Buddhist
monasteries and Hindu temples touch each other".
13 See : G. Coedes, The Indianised States of South East Asia, Kuala
Lumpur/Singapore 1968, p. 21 sqq.; H. G. Quaritch-Wales, Siamese States
Ceremonies, London 1931, p. 54 sqq., H. Bechert. Buddhismus, Staat und Gesellschaft
in den Ländern des Theravada-Buddhismus. Berlin/Frankfurt, Vol. lI p. 242 sqq.,
and passim.
14 Dh.B. Bajracharya, op. cit. No 72; Gnoli, No. 75.
15 The ritual lasted for more than a year and required strict observances like fasting,
sleeping on the ground, etc. for the yajamåna, i. e. the king.
(supposed) author or redactor of the Yajurveda (e. g. Vasantadeva's
Khapuche inscription of S. 452 = 531 AD).16 The same inscription also
contains the names of the Brahmins Viprasena, Veda Bha a,
Dhruvasena, and V
dhisena, and attaches the title of yåjñika
(performer of Vedic rituals) to the first two persons. The trayī (the
three holy Vedas) and the Veda in general are
18 VASUDHA
16 Dh.B. Bajracharya, No. 28, with his note (cf. also note p. 63 on karan a pūjå).
also mentioned in the Satyanarayan inscription17 of Ha igaon (of ca. S.
462 = 540 AD), where the names of the post-Vedic dharmaśåstras of
Manu, Yama, B
haspati and Uśanas also occur.
The most important piece of evidence, however, will be the
mentioning of a Taittirī-śåkhå go hī in the Narayanchowk (perhaps ca.
850 AD).18 A Gu hi for the Taittirīya branch of the K a Yajurveda
comes as quite a surprise in a Nepalese context, because all other
known medieval sources only name the Śukla Yajurveda.19 The
occurrence of this Śåkhå which all through the middle ages has been
popular and wide-spread only in South India (where, according to a
proverb "even the house cats know the Yajurveda"), could point to a
survival in the extreme North of the sub-continent of this old Vedic
school: It had originated from the doåb of the Yamunå and Ga gå in the
middle of the Vedic period, and was then transplanted to the countries
South of the Vindhyas, while all areas North of them were 'overrun' by
the Mådhyandinīya Śåkhå of the Śukla Yajurveda, which superseded the
other old Krsna Yajurveda schools there: the Kathas nowadays remain
only in Kashmir Valley and the Maitraya īyas very feebly in some areas
of Gujarat and North Maharastra.
The said inscription, therefore, is quite important for a general
history of Vedic schools and Vedic traditions and could help to explain
some peculiarities of Malla time Veda manuscripts, mentioned below.
"Thakuri" and Early Malla Period
After the comparatively many documents available from the
Lichavi period, there is a long gap in our knowledge regarding the
actual conditions in the Valley. A few inscriptions and some colophons
of very old palm leaf manuscripts shed some light on this period, but
17 Dh.B. Bajracharya No. 35, Gnoli No. 1; see Dh.B. Bajracharya's commentary on
it, p. 162 sqq.
18 See Pūr imå 16 p. 360-64, Bajracharya No. 149 = Gnoli No. 83, at Naxal, no date;
acc. to Bajracharya from the time of Jayadeva II, i. e. ca. 850 AD: cf. the note on p. 140.
19 In its sub-branch of the Mådhyandinīya recension, except for the one Kå va
manuscript mentioned below. Possibly, the Taitt. Go hī was singled out in the
inscription, because even at that time, Våjasaneyins were the core of the Brahmanical
population in the Valley. This, however, cannot be proved because of lack of
evidence.
little published so far help reconstruct the religious history of the time.
It is, however, clear that Brahmins and that means, the bearers of Vedic
traditions, continued to live in the Valley and that they frequently
remained purohitas of the kings.20 Thus, king Gu akåmadeva (955-995
AD. acc. to D. R. Regmi) ordered a Ko ihoma ceremony21 to be carried
out, which, of course, had to be performed by his Brahmin priests
according to (mostly) Vedic ritual. The coronation ceremony2 2
(pu yåbhi eka) is first mentioned for King Rudradeva (N. Samvat 237 =
1117 AD.) in the so-called Kaiser Va avalī,23 and from then onward
quite frequently both in this and in the well-known Gopålava śåvalī.
For king Abhayamalla's reign, it also mentions the performance of
such Vedic rituals as the Lak ahoma and the Påkaśråddha (1216-1255
AD).
From this same period date the oldest preserved Vedic
manuscripts of the whole sub-continent, now kept at the National
Archives of Nepal. They substantiate the account of the inscriptions
and of the occasional occurrence of Brahmins' names in the colophons
of non-Vedic mss.: There is an Upåkarmavidhi dated NS 180 = 1060 AD
(Ms. No. 1-1473 ca), which contains regulations for some ceremonies
connected with learning the Veda by rote. A Vivåhakarmasamuccaya of
NS 233 = 1113 AD contains rules for the marriage ceremony (Ms. I 933
kha); a Daśakarmapaddhati of NS 296 = 1176 AD those for the ten
'sacraments' to be performed during a person's life (Ms. I 1536); a
Sandhyavidhi of NS 401 = 1281 AD those for the Vedic twilight rites
(Ms. I 1320 nga). A study of these manuscripts,
VASUDHA 19
20 Whatever their religious outlook had been. A manuscript colophon of AD 1184,
for instance, mentions a śaivaråjaguru (see Regmi, Medieval Nepal, I, p. 192)
21 See Gopålava śåvalī fol. 23a.
22 On this ceremony, see now: Mahesh Raj Pant, Pūr imå 33, p. 13-27 (English
translation to appear in Nepal Research Center Journal. No. I).
23 See M. R. Pant, loc. cit. p. 16.
(as well as of the rest of the 24.000 or so mss. of the National Archives),
which have been stored there and partly even described since nearly 70
years now, but which have hardly been studied, (not to speak of
editions and translations), would shed considerable light on the
customs and the society of the period under review here.
Although the times do not seem to have been easy ones, the old
Brahmanical population seems to have continued to reside in the
Valley. Thus a manuscript of the Śivadharmaśåstra (Asiatic Soc. of
Bengal, No. 4077) mentions a certain Ratnasi ha as living in the
Taittiriyasala at Kathmandu, NS. 156 = 1036 AD. This śålå could well
have belonged to the Taittirīśåkhå Gu hi mentioned above. Yet there
also is some evidence for a continued immigration of Brahmins from
other parts of the sub-continent: A Brahmin immigrant from Gujarat24
is attested for NS 316 = 1216 AD. We do not know of the Vedic school
of this pandit, if he was a śrotriya at all. Coming from Gujarat,
however, he should have belonged to the Maitraya īya school of the
K a Yajurveda.
Except for the occurrence of the name of the Taittirīyas, there has
been no clear evidence so far regarding the śåkhå(s) to which the
Nepalese Brahmins of the time belonged. There is, however, an old
Kå våyana Śråddhavidhi (Nat. Arch. I 1320 gha).
This ritual handbook belongs to the rare Kå va school of the
Śukla Yajurveda, otherwise found scattered only here and there in India
(Nagpur, Orissa, Tamilnadu). Again, during the last part of the period
described here, there was a considerable influx from Mithila, mostly
caused by the Muslim conquest of Tirhut in 1324 AD. The Brahmins
fleeing to Nepal brought with them such mss. as the Pårva aśråddha25
(Laksma a Samvat 171 = ca. 1290 AD), or the Våjasaneyinåm
Vivåhapaddhati26 (La. S. 414 = ca. 1533 AD), the very title of which
shows that this text belongs to the Våjasaneyi Śåkhå of the Śukla
Yajurveda. Both mss. are in Maithili script. A glimpse of the state of
affairs in West Nepal is given by the Khasa king Jitårimalla's
24 Regmi, op. cit. p. 640.
25 Ms. No. I 772 nga in Bengali character.
26 Ms. No. I 1634 nga in Maithili script.
inscription said to be of the Śaka years 1015, 1016, 1018, assigning
some birta land to Brahmins.27
The later Malla Period
The data for a historical account of the Vedic traditions in Nepal
considerably increase with the advent of the Maithila Brahmins
referred to above: The Vedic manuscripts from the 14th and 15th
century are quite important as they differ somewhat in nature from the
earliest ones described in the last paragraph. There is a Puru asūkta
ms.28 of NS 444 = 1324 AD, and there are other Sa hitå mss., too: A
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå29 of Śaka 1350 = 1428 AD, another one of 1429 AD,
both of which were copied at Bhaktapur in Newari script. More
important yet is a Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå Padapå ha and Kramapå ha ms.,
also in Newari script, of the Śaka year 1324 = 1402 AD. and another
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå ms. in Devanagari script (no date) belonging of A.
Sharma. These two mss., which possibly are the oldest ones of this
Sa hitå extant anywhere, are of special importance30 because of the
way they mark the Vedic accents (svara): it seems that in Nepal of the
15th century, the old way of Veda recitation as described by the great
grammarian På ini (ca. 500 BC.) was still extant, while it had died out
in this form
20 VASUDHA
27 See Regmi, op. cit. Vol. I p. 723.
28 Ms. No. I 1206 gha.
29 Mss. nos. I 736 ca and I 784 gha.
30 See: author, Vishvabandu Commemoration Volume, p. 483-501 Hoshiarpur 1974.
in most parts of India: Some survivals can be deduced for the time only
in Kashmir, and some areas of Gujarat/North Maharashtra. Today,
this type of recitation survives only with some families in Kerala.
It would, therefore, seem that the older way of Vedic recitation,
which dates back even to Indo-European times (i. e. pronouncing the
udåtta, and not the svarita as the syllable with the highest tone),
persisted only in the very corners of sub-continent, and the said
Nepalese mss. are the oldest testimony of it in a written form. There are
a few later Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå mss. exhibiting these features, and there
also is a gveda ms.31 of perhaps equal age as that of A. Sharma
referred to above.
The medieval Vedic transmission and the actual recital of the
texts therefore seems to have been very conservative and faithful in
Nepal.
On the other hand, there was a considerable influence of the
North Indian traditions, coming with the Maithili Brahmins referred to
above. It is them who are said to have assisted king Jayasthiti Malla in
''introducing" the caste system into the Valley: Kīrtinåtha Upådhyåya
Kånyakubja, Raghunåtha Jhå Maithilī, Śrīnatha Bha a, Mahīnåtha
Bha a, Råmanåtha Bha a, -- typical names from the plains. King
Jyotirmalla, too, in NS. 530 = 1410 AD settled some Brahmin families
from Bengal at Patan, the descendants of whom still appear with their
Bengali names (Bha åcårya, Cakravartī, Ray, Ojhå) in an inscription of
1675 AD.32
Notices above Vedic rituals as performed during the Malla period
are quite numerous. First of all, there are the coronation ceremonies
(pu yåbhi eka, pa åbhi eka). They were sometimes accompanied by the
very elaborate and costly Ko ihoma sacrifice:33 King Siddhinarasi ha
Malla of Patan in NS 757 = 1637 AD performed a Ko yåhuti "of
Råjasūya style"34 which would mean a coronation ceremony much more
elaborate than the medieval pu yåbhi eka or råjyåbhi eka. A Ko yåhuti
was also performed by king Uchravasi ha Malla in NS 689 = 1569 AD
by king Śrīnivåsa Malla in NS 793 = 1673 AD, by Queen ddhilak mī of
31 Ms. I 1372, still written with p hamåtrå signs.
32 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. IV no. 77 = Abhilekha Sa
graha no. II, p. II.
33 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 726 sq.
34 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 273.
Kathmandu in NS 814 = 1694 AD and king Ra ajita Malla of
Bhaktapur (reigned 1722-69 AD). These Ko yåhutis are of special
importance here, as they always have to be accompanied by
Vedapåråya a, the recitation of all the four Vedas. The ritual, too,
includes quite a number of Vedic rites, but has also been supplemented
Pauranik and Tantrik elements.
Other Vedic rites attested include such yajñas as that one
described in the Taumadi Tole inscription35 of Bhaktapur, NS 530 =
1410 AD, or the Vyåghra Bhairava consecration accompanied by Vedic
recitation in NS 663 = 1515 AD. As Patan is one of the oldest capitals of
the Valley, the court Brahmins there have been performing an
Agnihotra ritual down through the centuries. This is one of the
simplest, but also the oldest Vedic rites, originally meant to insure the
rising of the sun every morning. It is therefore performed everyday
before (or at) sunrise and also at sunset, as a means to secure the
proper keeping of the holy fires overnight The Kaiser Library has got a
manuscript of NS 533 = 1434 AD describing this and some other Vedic
rituals like agnyådhåna, pave i, dårsapaur amåse i, anvårambha e i,
kåme i, śunasīre i, mitravinde i. This is one of the few Nepalese hand-
VASUDHA 21
35 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. III, inscription No. XLV.
books of the complicated Vedic Śrauta rituals surviving from the
middle ages. Otherwise, such Śrauta handbooks are hardly to be found
in the valley, and if so, they had been imported from Banaras in the last
centuries. (Handbooks of the more common house rituals --G hya
ceremonies,-- however, are quite numerous). Nevertheless, Vedic
Śrauta rites have come down even to the present time, though on a
limited scale (see below).
Special mention should be made of the Bhaktapur King
Bhūpatīndra Malla (1696-1722 AD), who ascended the throne at the
early age of 21. He seems to have been an extraordinary man in many
respects: He was not only a poet, instigated great activity in repairing
old temples and the palace, and built many new ones like the famous
Nyatapola and the Malatichok, but he also performed many rituals,36
as can be seen from the accounts preserved in the National Archives,
and he had innumerable manuscripts copied.37 One list of his library
alone comprises hundreds of books. Among them there is a very
interesting ms. of the first book of the Atharvaveda38 (Padapå ha of the
Śaunaka recension, NS 812 = AD 1692), written a few years before his
ascension to the throne, on his order. This is not only one of the very
few Atharvaveda mss. from Malla times but it also employs a very
unusual way of marking the Vedic accents, unknown from any other
Veda ms. either from Nepal or India. Another Atharvaveda ms. from
his time,39 however, has got the usual accent marks. In his reign a few
gveda mss. also were copied and are in the National Archives now.
Although there is dearth of mss. of the Bråhma a and the
Upani ad of the Våjasaneyi school in Malla time Nepal, a few copies of
these texts (i. e. Śatapatha Bråhma a and B hadaåra yaka Upani ad)
have come down from Bhūpatīndra's time. There are numerous
Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå mss., as in the centuries before, but a few of them
have got quite a curious numbering of mantras -- a fact perhaps
pointing to Kå va Śåkhå origin. In this regard, the occasional
immigration from various parts of India should not be left out of
36 Cf. Pūr imå No. 9, p. 23-29.
37 Cf. Regmi, op. cit. Vol. II p. 243.
38 Ms. No. I 801.
39 Ms. No. I 711.
consideration. There is the case of Bha a Nåråya a,40 a Brahmin from
the Co
a country, already attested in NS 591 = 1471 AD and of another
Brahmin Nåråya a,41 the spiritual advisor of King Śivasi ha of
Kathmandu (1578-1620 AD). This Brahmin had come from the banks
of the river Kåverī in Tamilnadu. Again, another Brahmin from South
India, whose home was somewhere on the Godåvarī river, was minister
of the Patan King in the late 17th century.42 Furthermore, the Paśupati
Temple priests since centuries have been coming from the North
Karnataka town of Gokarna. All these Brahmins might have brought
with them traditions and manuscripts unusual to the tradition of the
Valley.43
One fact which strikes any observer of medieval Veda tradition of
Nepal very much is the seemingly absolute non-occurrence of Såmaveda
manuscripts.44 Såmavedic singing was necessary for such elaborate
Śrauta rituals as the Soma (Agni oma) rites, and Såmaveda Brahmins
also have to take part even in the modern form of the coronation ritual,
or in any Lak ahoma. The absence of Såmaveda evidence is striking even
more as Mithila had a firm tradition of Såmaveda in be middle ages,
and as even in the Valley itself, a few late G hya manuals in Newari
script45 are preserved, which claim to belong to the Såmaveda. All of
them, however, had been written only in this or in the last century.
22 VASUDHA
40 D.R. Regmi. op. cit. Vol. III inscription No. 72.
41 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. IV inscription No. 30
42 Regmi, op. cit. Vol. I p. 685.
43 There are a number of old palm leaf manuscripts in South Indian scripts in the
National Archives, going uncatalogued.
44 I have now found one in the list of king Bhūpatīndra Malla, referred to above.
45 Ms. No. I 1696/568, apparently confiscated in Rana time from a Bhaktapur
Rajopadhyaya.
Nevertheless, the absence of Såmaveda texts is echoed by the modern
scarcity of Såmaveda singers in the Valley (see below). It must not be
forgotten that Såmavedic singing is a very intricate art, requiring years
of study and training--and if there was no real need for such skill, it
easily could fall into disuse and neglect.
The Shah Period
The conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by King P
thvīnåråya a in
1768/69 AD brought a considerable number of Kumaĩ Brahmins into
the Valley. They soon largely superseded the old Råjopådhyåya families
m their functions as royal priests and spiritual advisors. The Kumaĩ
Brahmins, too, are. Kånyakubjas and followers of the Mådhyandina
śåkhå of the Śukla Yajurveda, i. e. they are Våjasaneyins. There are,
however, also a few Såmavedins among them, who do not nowadays
seem to know the art of Såmaveda singing. Only one or two Brahmins
in the Valley are known to master a few såmans, and none of them
seems to know the whole Såmaveda by heart or can sing all såmans
required in Śrauta rites.
Due to this new influx of Brahmanical population, one can now
count at least 5 separate groups of Brahmins in the Valley :
1. The Råjopådhyåyas, who speak Newari language and have been
the purohitas and gurus of the Malla kings. Their ranks have again and
again been filled by immigrants from India, who nevertheless quickly
integrated into the Newar society. The Råjopådhyåyas keep a still strong
tradition of Vedic and Tantric rituals alive, a fact exemplified for
instance at the recent Lak ahoma, performed with contributions of the
whole town of Bhaktapur.
2. The Pūrbīya Brahmins from Bengal, who immigrated to the
Nepal Valley in the middle ages and now speak Nepali language. It is
this group from which the Råjgurus and Purohitas came, up to Rana
times (i. e. the Aryal viz. the Paudyal family).
3 The Tirhute Brahmins (Jhå, Miśra, etc.) who also came to the
Valley in the late Malla period and during the Shah period. They speak
Newari but always retained matrimonial and other relations with the
Terai.
4. The Kumaĩ Brahmins from Central and West Nepal, who
originally came from Kumaun (to which area many of them had
emigrated in the middle ages due to the Muslim conquest of the plains).
Most of the Kumaĩs came to the Kathmandu Valley proper only after
the Gorkha conquest. One subgroup among them is the Doteli
Brahmins from West Nepal.46
5. The Paśupati priests from Gokarna, N. Karnataka, who still
recruit from that area. They are called Bha as and are said to have
come to Nepal only after the ousting of the Nambudiri priests (from
Kerala) by king Jagajjaya Malla (ca. 1730 AD).
Except for the Gokarna Brahmins, who are followers of the
Taittirīya Śåkhå of the K a Yajurveda, and for the few sections of the
Kumaĩ belonging to the Såmaveda, all these groups are Kånyakubjas, i.
e. they claim to descend from the area of Kanauj, and are followers of
the White Yajurveda (Mådhyandina Śåkhå of the Våjasaneyins).
Under the Shah dynasty, too, Vedic traditions were encouraged.
There is, for example, a manual of the coronation rituals by King
Drabya Shah. A special Agnihotra priest was appointed, who had to
perform this old Vedic rite twice daily. His descendant claims that his
family has been perfor-
VASUDHA 23
46 There are only a few of them in the Valley. These have given up their W. Nepali
dialect and speak standard Nepali now. Though coming from W. Nepal, too, they
did not intermarry with the Kumaĩ. Another subgroup among the Kumaĩ is the
Kånchu Kumaĩ from Kumaun proper.
ming this ritual since some two hundred years.
During the Rana times, too, many yajñas are said to have been
performed, and this is borne out by such news reports in the old
volumes of the Gorkhapatra, like that of a Ko yåhuti held by the Prime
Minister in V. S. 1973.47 The Ranas also performed Råjyåbhi ekas when
beginning their tenure of office as Prime Ministers. These are described
in the Gorkhapatra as having been performed "according to Śruti,
Sm ti, G hyasūtra, Purå a and Tantra injunctions".48
King Mahendra performed such big yajñas as the Ko yåhuti of
V.S. 2016 and the Rudrayågas of 2018 and 2022. One of the last bigger
Vedic ceremonies was the Lak åhuti performed this spring in Hanuman
Dhoka palace, because of the appearance of a comet.
The last centuries have brought quite an impressive influx of
North Indian manuscripts (presumably mostly from Banaras) of Vedic
texts and rituals, as witnessed in the collections of the former Bir
Library and the Råjguru Hemråj Collection (both in the National
Archives now). It is, however, difficult to say how far this import of
Vedic mss. coincided with a revival of Vedic rituals, especially Śrauta
rites, which are quite well represented in the said collection.
The Present Situation
Nowadays the learning by heart of the four Vedas is dying out
very fast. Among all the Brahmins' groups enumerated above, only the
Yajurveda (Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå) is still learnt to some extent. The other
Śruti texts of this Śåkhå (Śatapatha Bråhma a, B hadåra yaka
Upani ad, not to speak of the Śrautasūtra) are no longer learnt. Apart
from the very few persons knowing some Såmans and from others who
can recite a few
gveda sūktas, all the other Veda Sa hitås (
gveda,
Såmaveda, Atharvaveda) are no longer being learnt by rote. Worse, the
little that is still learnt by young boys undergoing the Upanayana
ceremony ('bratabandha'), is forgotten quickly, and even among the
more conservative groups, this period of study is shortened year by
year: The Råjopådhyåya boys, who even a few years ago still had to
47 See Gorkhapatra of Jye ha 10, VS. 1973. A costly tulådåna ceremony was held as
late as Mårga 7, VS 1966.
48 See Gorkhapatra, Mårga 24, VS 1989.
learn Veda texts for some four weeks now do so only for four days.
Other groups hardly learn the Gåyatrī mantra by heart and try out a
few sūktas or yaju during the actual upanayana. There is a På haśålå at
Deopatan near Paśupatinath Temple,49 the Veda-Vedå ga-Vidyålaya.
This school has a very wide scope of lectures but in fact mainly teaches
the well-known Śukla Yajurveda-Sa hitå (along with the common
G hya rituals, some Tantra, Grammar, Classical Sanskrit literature,
etc.).
The situation of Vedic tradition looks somewhat better when
surveying the actual performance of rituals. The more common G hya
rites like upanayana (bratabandba), marriage, etc. are, of course, still
being performed at each such function, but they rather seem to have
become an occasion of show and display of wealth during the last
years, and the actual ceremony has become almost devoid of meaning,
and is frequently unkown in its import to the participants, although
some handbooks of such rites have been published recently, supplying
even a Nepali translation of the old Vedic Sanskrit prayers and offering
yaju . The ceremonies therefore are quite often shortened beyond
recognition on request of the yajamånas, and the priests have to rattle
though their mantras, skipping whole pages of their handbooks.
(contd. on page 35)
24 VASUDHA
49 See: rules and regulations in: Dharmadarśana (a journal of the Gu hī Sansthån),
Vol. 2, Pt. 4, Kathmandu, Mågh/Caitra 2032 VS, p. 37. -- Recently, a Veda school was
also opened at Jhapa, see: Rising Nepal of 22. 7. 1976
(contd. from page 24)
Only very few dedicated people indeed still perform the solemn
and elaborate Vedic śrautra rites. There is the Pūrbe Brahmin,
mentioned above, who every morning and evening, at twilight, offers
the Agnihotra oblations into the three holy fires symbolising the Earth,
the Sun and the Moon. The Newar Råjopådhyåyas, too, have among
them one priest who traditionally has to keep the Agnihotra fires
burning, and who daily performs the Agnihotra twice. This Agnihotra,
however, has been influenced much by Pauranik and Tantrik elements.
In the last few years, two more Brahmins have undertaken to perform
this simple but impressive Vedic ritual.
The same men also perform the New Moon and Full Moon
sacrifices in the Śrautra way, by using the three holy fires
(Dårśapaur amåsa rites). The Råjopådhyåyas say that they still retain a
form of the ancient Vedic Soma sacrifice, which according to them has
to be performed in the month of Śråva a. This rather elaborate ritual,
for which the help of numerous priests of all the four Vedas is
necessary, is otherwise unheard of in Nepal and Northern India (with
the possible exception of Banaras). It nowadays is only being
performed every spring in a few villages of Andhra and Kerala. All the
other elaborate Vedic Śrautra rituals are virtually extinct both in Nepal
and in India, except for a few "revivals" in Poona, and. last year in
Kerala, the Agnicayana with foreign Sanskritists' financial aid and
participation.
The recent Lak ahoma of the Bhaktapur Råjopådhyåyas is
something like an exception, having been performed with voluntary
contributions of the whole population. Yet this ritual is not a truly
Vedic one, and more of a Pauranik development, with the inclusion of
quite a number of even Tantric rites.
There is, however, another remarkable exception from this
somewhat bleak picture of contemporary Vedic tradition: The
Råjyåbhi eka, the coronation ceremonies. Nepal, now being the only
Hindu state in the world, still keeps this age-old tradition alive in all its
minute details, as could be witnessed last year during the coronation of
H.M. King Birendra. The contemporary Råjyåbhi eka, however, is, as
indicated above, an abbreviation of the elaborate and time consuming
Vedic Råjasūya ritual. This lasted for more than one year, and required
the king to be an åhitågni, i. e. some one who as a yajamåna himself had
kindled the three holy fires and who had performed the various Vedic
Śrauta rituals like Somayåga agni oma etc.). Because of the many
restrictions and observances imposed on a yajamåna performing these
rites (including fasting, sleeping on the ground, speaking according to
certain rules, avoiding certain words, being present on the offering
ground for many days and nights on and off, etc.), the Råjasūya had
been shortened considerably already in the early middle ages and now
covers only a few days -- these being the culmination period of the
former Råjasūya. Furthermore, the Råjyåbhi eka has also been
influenced and enlarged considerably by Pauranik and Tantrik
elements. Thus, the mahåsnåna, i. e. the ritual besmearing of the king
with various kinds of earth clearly is a medieval addition. On the other
hand, such Vedic practices as the one to announce the newly crowned
king to the populace by exclaiming in Sanskrit "This, o people, is your
king " seems to have been dropped, as also the symbolic raid by the
king on a horse-drawn chariot, meant to conquer from his enemies a
herd of cows: a
VASUDHA 35
symbolic act well fitted into the Vedic scheme of thought and politics.
Similarly, the riding through town on horseback has long been replaced
by a state procession on elephant. Nevertheless, the coronation ritual is
mainly a Vedic ritual even nowadays.
Conclusion
As Vedic tradition is at the roots of this and many other facets of
Nepalese culture, one feels that something should be done for its
preservation in modern times and for future generations. Even if
regarded outside the religious context and meaning, both Vedic
recitation and ritual can be viewed as some kind of a rather
complicated art, and they should be preserved as such. The general
public will more and more lose interest in these 'outdated' ceremonies,
and in consequence, less and less young boys will be found to be willing
to undertake the hard task of learning by heart the texts and sequences
of a rite, not to speak of learning by rote a whole Veda Sa hitå or
Bråhma a: "There is no money in it". Once the line of tradition, now
ranging back some three thousand years, has been cut, however, a reintroduction
will be very difficult, and it will not be a genuine Nepali
tradition then. Some kind of help therefore should be given to insure
this ancient tradition.
This could be done in a way similar to the one adopted for the
preservation of the old arts and customs of Japan, which in any case
seems the only modern country where the most ancient traditions of
ritual, music, theatre, poetry, painting, etc. are being kept up until
today, and in fact are part of everyday life.
In the last decades, however, some arts and crafts of Japan also
have been endangered. In these cases, the Government will declare the
only few masters of a certain art or craft still alive "Living National
Treasures" and will pay them a monthly pension -- under the condition,
however, that they agree to teach their art to some young students
willing to learn it. In this way, many an old tradition ranging from
music to carpentry; and falconry has been preserved for the future.
In a similar way some of the endangered traditions of Nepal
could be protected and preserved for future generations. The loss of the
nation's past and the mindless taking over of the 'ideals' and the
'modern' or 'fashionable' ways of living of other nations, as can be
noticed every day by the young generation's tastes and off-curriculum
occupations, will destroy the traces of much of the still living heritage
of Nepal. When these young people will recognise their mistakes in one
or two decades time, it will be too late in many cases: the last persons
still knowing some old traditions will be dead by then. Only a wellbalanced
combination of tradition and modern influences can insure
true development in both the material and spiritual fields. It is
therefore high time now that something concrete should by done about
these endangered arts (and not merely by passing a resolution, forming
a committee or by giving speeches), whether it may concern Buddhist
carya dances, traditional (i. e. non-tourist taste) painting, casting of
figures or wood carving, or the ancient Vedic traditions sketched in the
above paragraphs .
To return to this tradition: Vedic texts and rituals always have
been transmitted orally, by learning them by heart, from teacher to
pupil, in an unbroken line of tradition starting with the
gveda time
itself (as alluded to in the text). This has been done
36 VASUDHA
with such fidelity and accuracy that, for instance, a Vedic mantra
heard in Nepal will have exactly the same wording and even the same
intonation (with the musical accents long lost in everyday speech) in
Kashmir or Gujarat or Kerala. No word or accent has been changed for
a period of at least 3000 years. This is quite remarkable, especially when
compared to the religious or literary traditions of other cultures. The
Veda has got a better tradition than any classical text of Greco-Roman
antiquity or, for that matter, the holy texts of the Christian or Jewish
religion, which nearly date back as far as some Vedic texts. Actually,
there is no text known anywhere in the world which has got that kind of
faithful tradition as the gveda or other Vedic texts have got, being
transmitted by word of mouth until recently. It would be extremely sad
if by the neglect of this generation this unique tradition would die out
in the Hindu Kingdom of Nepal.
One way to support it would be the one referred to above. The
Deopatan På haśålå, for instance, could provide well-versed teachers of
all the four Vedas and the Sūtras (even if they would have to be brought
from Southern India), who could teach some interested students the
holy texts and more prominent Vedic rituals. Students, of course, will
also have to be encouraged nowadays, as they will feel that such study
will not earn them their daily bread, and some provision should be
made to insure their future, perhaps on a similar line again to that
usual in Japan: The more important national sanctuaries are, together
with the income of' the priests, being paid for by the Government or the
Imperial Household Agency, and even the Emperor is known to
perform quite a number of ancient Shinto rites in the year.
Similarlarly, an effort should be made in Nepal to re-introduce
such old Hindu customs as the study of those Vedas and Vedic rites
which have disappeared from Nepal. Such an experiment actually had
been carried out successfully by the Mahåråja of Darbhanga in Bihar
some decades ago: Såmavedic study has been re-introduced from South
India by inviting a few well-versed Såmavedins to teach there: There
will, of course, always be only very few young boys who will be willing
to undertake the hard training necessary for success but this will suffice
to insure the survival of the tradition. It would only be appropriate, I
feel, if Nepal would undertake a similar (or better, a more far-reaching)
effort to preserve the Vedic traditions, which form the very roots of her
Hindu culture.
thvīnåråya a in
1768/69 AD brought a considerable number of Kumaĩ Brahmins into
the Valley. They soon largely superseded the old Råjopådhyåya families
m their functions as royal priests and spiritual advisors. The Kumaĩ
Brahmins, too, are. Kånyakubjas and followers of the Mådhyandina
śåkhå of the Śukla Yajurveda, i. e. they are Våjasaneyins. There are,
however, also a few Såmavedins among them, who do not nowadays
seem to know the art of Såmaveda singing. Only one or two Brahmins
in the Valley are known to master a few såmans, and none of them
seems to know the whole Såmaveda by heart or can sing all såmans
required in Śrauta rites.
Due to this new influx of Brahmanical population, one can now
count at least 5 separate groups of Brahmins in the Valley :
1. The Råjopådhyåyas, who speak Newari language and have been
the purohitas and gurus of the Malla kings. Their ranks have again and
again been filled by immigrants from India, who nevertheless quickly
integrated into the Newar society. The Råjopådhyåyas keep a still strong
tradition of Vedic and Tantric rituals alive, a fact exemplified for
instance at the recent Lak ahoma, performed with contributions of the
whole town of Bhaktapur.
2. The Pūrbīya Brahmins from Bengal, who immigrated to the
Nepal Valley in the middle ages and now speak Nepali language. It is
this group from which the Råjgurus and Purohitas came, up to Rana
times (i. e. the Aryal viz. the Paudyal family).
3 The Tirhute Brahmins (Jhå, Miśra, etc.) who also came to the
Valley in the late Malla period and during the Shah period. They speak
Newari but always retained matrimonial and other relations with the
Terai.
4. The Kumaĩ Brahmins from Central and West Nepal, who
originally came from Kumaun (to which area many of them had
emigrated in the middle ages due to the Muslim conquest of the plains).
Most of the Kumaĩs came to the Kathmandu Valley proper only after
the Gorkha conquest. One subgroup among them is the Doteli
Brahmins from West Nepal.46
5. The Paśupati priests from Gokarna, N. Karnataka, who still
recruit from that area. They are called Bha as and are said to have
come to Nepal only after the ousting of the Nambudiri priests (from
Kerala) by king Jagajjaya Malla (ca. 1730 AD).
Except for the Gokarna Brahmins, who are followers of the
Taittirīya Śåkhå of the K a Yajurveda, and for the few sections of the
Kumaĩ belonging to the Såmaveda, all these groups are Kånyakubjas, i.
e. they claim to descend from the area of Kanauj, and are followers of
the White Yajurveda (Mådhyandina Śåkhå of the Våjasaneyins).
Under the Shah dynasty, too, Vedic traditions were encouraged.
There is, for example, a manual of the coronation rituals by King
Drabya Shah. A special Agnihotra priest was appointed, who had to
perform this old Vedic rite twice daily. His descendant claims that his
family has been perfor-
VASUDHA 23
46 There are only a few of them in the Valley. These have given up their W. Nepali
dialect and speak standard Nepali now. Though coming from W. Nepal, too, they
did not intermarry with the Kumaĩ. Another subgroup among the Kumaĩ is the
Kånchu Kumaĩ from Kumaun proper.
ming this ritual since some two hundred years.
During the Rana times, too, many yajñas are said to have been
performed, and this is borne out by such news reports in the old
volumes of the Gorkhapatra, like that of a Ko yåhuti held by the Prime
Minister in V. S. 1973.47 The Ranas also performed Råjyåbhi ekas when
beginning their tenure of office as Prime Ministers. These are described
in the Gorkhapatra as having been performed "according to Śruti,
Sm ti, G hyasūtra, Purå a and Tantra injunctions".48
King Mahendra performed such big yajñas as the Ko yåhuti of
V.S. 2016 and the Rudrayågas of 2018 and 2022. One of the last bigger
Vedic ceremonies was the Lak åhuti performed this spring in Hanuman
Dhoka palace, because of the appearance of a comet.
The last centuries have brought quite an impressive influx of
North Indian manuscripts (presumably mostly from Banaras) of Vedic
texts and rituals, as witnessed in the collections of the former Bir
Library and the Råjguru Hemråj Collection (both in the National
Archives now). It is, however, difficult to say how far this import of
Vedic mss. coincided with a revival of Vedic rituals, especially Śrauta
rites, which are quite well represented in the said collection.
The Present Situation
Nowadays the learning by heart of the four Vedas is dying out
very fast. Among all the Brahmins' groups enumerated above, only the
Yajurveda (Våjasaneyi-Sa hitå) is still learnt to some extent. The other
Śruti texts of this Śåkhå (Śatapatha Bråhma a, B hadåra yaka
Upani ad, not to speak of the Śrautasūtra) are no longer learnt. Apart
from the very few persons knowing some Såmans and from others who
can recite a few
gveda sūktas, all the other Veda Sa hitås (
gveda,
Såmaveda, Atharvaveda) are no longer being learnt by rote. Worse, the
little that is still learnt by young boys undergoing the Upanayana
ceremony ('bratabandha'), is forgotten quickly, and even among the
more conservative groups, this period of study is shortened year by
year: The Råjopådhyåya boys, who even a few years ago still had to
47 See Gorkhapatra of Jye ha 10, VS. 1973. A costly tulådåna ceremony was held as
late as Mårga 7, VS 1966.
48 See Gorkhapatra, Mårga 24, VS 1989.
learn Veda texts for some four weeks now do so only for four days.
Other groups hardly learn the Gåyatrī mantra by heart and try out a
few sūktas or yaju during the actual upanayana. There is a På haśålå at
Deopatan near Paśupatinath Temple,49 the Veda-Vedå ga-Vidyålaya.
This school has a very wide scope of lectures but in fact mainly teaches
the well-known Śukla Yajurveda-Sa hitå (along with the common
G hya rituals, some Tantra, Grammar, Classical Sanskrit literature,
etc.).
The situation of Vedic tradition looks somewhat better when
surveying the actual performance of rituals. The more common G hya
rites like upanayana (bratabandba), marriage, etc. are, of course, still
being performed at each such function, but they rather seem to have
become an occasion of show and display of wealth during the last
years, and the actual ceremony has become almost devoid of meaning,
and is frequently unkown in its import to the participants, although
some handbooks of such rites have been published recently, supplying
even a Nepali translation of the old Vedic Sanskrit prayers and offering
yaju . The ceremonies therefore are quite often shortened beyond
recognition on request of the yajamånas, and the priests have to rattle
though their mantras, skipping whole pages of their handbooks.
(contd. on page 35)
24 VASUDHA
49 See: rules and regulations in: Dharmadarśana (a journal of the Gu hī Sansthån),
Vol. 2, Pt. 4, Kathmandu, Mågh/Caitra 2032 VS, p. 37. -- Recently, a Veda school was
also opened at Jhapa, see: Rising Nepal of 22. 7. 1976
(contd. from page 24)
Only very few dedicated people indeed still perform the solemn
and elaborate Vedic śrautra rites. There is the Pūrbe Brahmin,
mentioned above, who every morning and evening, at twilight, offers
the Agnihotra oblations into the three holy fires symbolising the Earth,
the Sun and the Moon. The Newar Råjopådhyåyas, too, have among
them one priest who traditionally has to keep the Agnihotra fires
burning, and who daily performs the Agnihotra twice. This Agnihotra,
however, has been influenced much by Pauranik and Tantrik elements.
In the last few years, two more Brahmins have undertaken to perform
this simple but impressive Vedic ritual.
The same men also perform the New Moon and Full Moon
sacrifices in the Śrautra way, by using the three holy fires
(Dårśapaur amåsa rites). The Råjopådhyåyas say that they still retain a
form of the ancient Vedic Soma sacrifice, which according to them has
to be performed in the month of Śråva a. This rather elaborate ritual,
for which the help of numerous priests of all the four Vedas is
necessary, is otherwise unheard of in Nepal and Northern India (with
the possible exception of Banaras). It nowadays is only being
performed every spring in a few villages of Andhra and Kerala. All the
other elaborate Vedic Śrautra rituals are virtually extinct both in Nepal
and in India, except for a few "revivals" in Poona, and. last year in
Kerala, the Agnicayana with foreign Sanskritists' financial aid and
participation.
The recent Lak ahoma of the Bhaktapur Råjopådhyåyas is
something like an exception, having been performed with voluntary
contributions of the whole population. Yet this ritual is not a truly
Vedic one, and more of a Pauranik development, with the inclusion of
quite a number of even Tantric rites.
There is, however, another remarkable exception from this
somewhat bleak picture of contemporary Vedic tradition: The
Råjyåbhi eka, the coronation ceremonies. Nepal, now being the only
Hindu state in the world, still keeps this age-old tradition alive in all its
minute details, as could be witnessed last year during the coronation of
H.M. King Birendra. The contemporary Råjyåbhi eka, however, is, as
indicated above, an abbreviation of the elaborate and time consuming
Vedic Råjasūya ritual. This lasted for more than one year, and required
the king to be an åhitågni, i. e. some one who as a yajamåna himself had
kindled the three holy fires and who had performed the various Vedic
Śrauta rituals like Somayåga agni oma etc.). Because of the many
restrictions and observances imposed on a yajamåna performing these
rites (including fasting, sleeping on the ground, speaking according to
certain rules, avoiding certain words, being present on the offering
ground for many days and nights on and off, etc.), the Råjasūya had
been shortened considerably already in the early middle ages and now
covers only a few days -- these being the culmination period of the
former Råjasūya. Furthermore, the Råjyåbhi eka has also been
influenced and enlarged considerably by Pauranik and Tantrik
elements. Thus, the mahåsnåna, i. e. the ritual besmearing of the king
with various kinds of earth clearly is a medieval addition. On the other
hand, such Vedic practices as the one to announce the newly crowned
king to the populace by exclaiming in Sanskrit "This, o people, is your
king " seems to have been dropped, as also the symbolic raid by the
king on a horse-drawn chariot, meant to conquer from his enemies a
herd of cows: a
VASUDHA 35
symbolic act well fitted into the Vedic scheme of thought and politics.
Similarly, the riding through town on horseback has long been replaced
by a state procession on elephant. Nevertheless, the coronation ritual is
mainly a Vedic ritual even nowadays.
Conclusion
As Vedic tradition is at the roots of this and many other facets of
Nepalese culture, one feels that something should be done for its
preservation in modern times and for future generations. Even if
regarded outside the religious context and meaning, both Vedic
recitation and ritual can be viewed as some kind of a rather
complicated art, and they should be preserved as such. The general
public will more and more lose interest in these 'outdated' ceremonies,
and in consequence, less and less young boys will be found to be willing
to undertake the hard task of learning by heart the texts and sequences
of a rite, not to speak of learning by rote a whole Veda Sa hitå or
Bråhma a: "There is no money in it". Once the line of tradition, now
ranging back some three thousand years, has been cut, however, a reintroduction
will be very difficult, and it will not be a genuine Nepali
tradition then. Some kind of help therefore should be given to insure
this ancient tradition.
This could be done in a way similar to the one adopted for the
preservation of the old arts and customs of Japan, which in any case
seems the only modern country where the most ancient traditions of
ritual, music, theatre, poetry, painting, etc. are being kept up until
today, and in fact are part of everyday life.
In the last decades, however, some arts and crafts of Japan also
have been endangered. In these cases, the Government will declare the
only few masters of a certain art or craft still alive "Living National
Treasures" and will pay them a monthly pension -- under the condition,
however, that they agree to teach their art to some young students
willing to learn it. In this way, many an old tradition ranging from
music to carpentry; and falconry has been preserved for the future.
In a similar way some of the endangered traditions of Nepal
could be protected and preserved for future generations. The loss of the
nation's past and the mindless taking over of the 'ideals' and the
'modern' or 'fashionable' ways of living of other nations, as can be
noticed every day by the young generation's tastes and off-curriculum
occupations, will destroy the traces of much of the still living heritage
of Nepal. When these young people will recognise their mistakes in one
or two decades time, it will be too late in many cases: the last persons
still knowing some old traditions will be dead by then. Only a wellbalanced
combination of tradition and modern influences can insure
true development in both the material and spiritual fields. It is
therefore high time now that something concrete should by done about
these endangered arts (and not merely by passing a resolution, forming
a committee or by giving speeches), whether it may concern Buddhist
carya dances, traditional (i. e. non-tourist taste) painting, casting of
figures or wood carving, or the ancient Vedic traditions sketched in the
above paragraphs .
To return to this tradition: Vedic texts and rituals always have
been transmitted orally, by learning them by heart, from teacher to
pupil, in an unbroken line of tradition starting with the
gveda time
itself (as alluded to in the text). This has been done
36 VASUDHA
with such fidelity and accuracy that, for instance, a Vedic mantra
heard in Nepal will have exactly the same wording and even the same
intonation (with the musical accents long lost in everyday speech) in
Kashmir or Gujarat or Kerala. No word or accent has been changed for
a period of at least 3000 years. This is quite remarkable, especially when
compared to the religious or literary traditions of other cultures. The
Veda has got a better tradition than any classical text of Greco-Roman
antiquity or, for that matter, the holy texts of the Christian or Jewish
religion, which nearly date back as far as some Vedic texts. Actually,
there is no text known anywhere in the world which has got that kind of
faithful tradition as the gveda or other Vedic texts have got, being
transmitted by word of mouth until recently. It would be extremely sad
if by the neglect of this generation this unique tradition would die out
in the Hindu Kingdom of Nepal.
One way to support it would be the one referred to above. The
Deopatan På haśålå, for instance, could provide well-versed teachers of
all the four Vedas and the Sūtras (even if they would have to be brought
from Southern India), who could teach some interested students the
holy texts and more prominent Vedic rituals. Students, of course, will
also have to be encouraged nowadays, as they will feel that such study
will not earn them their daily bread, and some provision should be
made to insure their future, perhaps on a similar line again to that
usual in Japan: The more important national sanctuaries are, together
with the income of' the priests, being paid for by the Government or the
Imperial Household Agency, and even the Emperor is known to
perform quite a number of ancient Shinto rites in the year.
Similarlarly, an effort should be made in Nepal to re-introduce
such old Hindu customs as the study of those Vedas and Vedic rites
which have disappeared from Nepal. Such an experiment actually had
been carried out successfully by the Mahåråja of Darbhanga in Bihar
some decades ago: Såmavedic study has been re-introduced from South
India by inviting a few well-versed Såmavedins to teach there: There
will, of course, always be only very few young boys who will be willing
to undertake the hard training necessary for success but this will suffice
to insure the survival of the tradition. It would only be appropriate, I
feel, if Nepal would undertake a similar (or better, a more far-reaching)
effort to preserve the Vedic traditions, which form the very roots of her
Hindu culture.
